%
\Chapter{Nearfields, planar nearrings and weakly divisible nearrings}
%
A *nearfield* is a nearring with $1$ where each nonzero element has a
multiplicative inverse. The (additive) group reduct of a finite
nearfield is necessarily elementary abelian.
For an exposition of nearfields we refer to \cite{Waehling:Fastkoerper}.
Let $(N,+,\cdot)$ be a left nearring. For $a,b \in N$ we define $a \equiv b$
iff $a\cdot n = b\cdot n$ for all $n\in N$. If $a \equiv b$, then $a$ and $b$
are called *equivalent multipliers*.
A nearring $N$ is called *planar* if $| N/_{\equiv} | \ge 3$ and if
for any two non-equivalent multipliers $a$ and $b$ in $N$, for any $c\in N$,
the equation $a\cdot x = b\cdot x + c$ has a unique solution.
See \cite{Clay:Nearrings} for basic results on planar nearrings.
All finite nearfields are planar nearrings.
A left nearring $(N,+,\cdot)$ is called *weakly divisible* if
$\forall a,b\in N \exists x\in N : a\cdot x = b$ or $b\cdot x = a$.
All finite integral planar nearrings are weakly divisible.
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\Section{Dickson numbers}
\>IsPairOfDicksonNumbers( <q>, <n> )
A pair of Dickson numbers $(q,n)$ consists of a prime power integer $q$
and a natural number $n$ such that for $p = 4$ or $p$ prime, $p|n$ implies
$p|q-1$.
\beginexample
gap> IsPairOfDicksonNumbers( 5, 4 );
true
\endexample
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\Section{Dickson nearfields}
\>DicksonNearFields( <q>, <n> )
All finite nearfields with 7 exceptions can be obtained via socalled
coupling maps from finite fields. These nearfields are called Dickson
nearfields.
The multiplication map of such a Dickson nearfield is given by a pair of
Dickson numbers $(q,n)$ in the following way:
Let $F = GF(q^n)$ and $w$ be a primitive element of $F$. Let
$H$ be the subgroup of $(F\setminus\{0\},\cdot)$ generated by $w^n$.
Then $\{w^{(q^i-1)/(q-1)}\ |\ 0\leq i\leq n-1 \}$ is a set of coset
representatives of $H$ in $F\setminus\{0\}$.
For $f\in Hw^{(q^i-1)/(q-1)}$ and $x\in F$ define $f*x = f\cdot x^{q^i}$
and $0*x = 0$. Then $*$ is a nearfield multiplication on the additive group
$(F,+)$.
Note that a Dickson nearfield is not uniquely determined by $(q,n)$, since
$w$ can be chosen arbitrarily. Different choices of $w$ may yield isomorphic
nearfields.
`DicksonNearFields' returns a list of the non-isomorphic Dickson nearfields
determined by the pair of Dickson numbers $(q,n)$
\beginexample
gap> DicksonNearFields( 5, 4 );
[ ExplicitMultiplicationNearRing ( <pc group of size 625 with
4 generators> , multiplication ),
ExplicitMultiplicationNearRing ( <pc group of size 625 with
4 generators> , multiplication ) ]
\endexample
\>NumberOfDicksonNearFields( <q>, <n> )
`NumberOfDicksonNearFields' returns the number of non-isomorphic Dickson
nearfields which can be obtained from a pair of Dickson numbers $(q,n)$.
This number is given by $\Phi(n)/k$. Here $\Phi(n)$ denotes the number
of relatively prime residues modulo $n$ and $k$ is the multiplicative order
of $p$ modulo $n$ where $p$ is the prime divisor of $q$.
\beginexample
gap> NumberOfDicksonNearFields( 5, 4 );
2
\endexample
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\Section{Exceptional nearfields}
\>ExceptionalNearFields( <q> )
There are 7 finite nearfields which cannot be obtained from finite fields
via a Dickson process. They are of size $p^2$ for
$p = 5, 7, 11, 11, 23, 29, 59$. (There exist 2 exceptional nearfields of size
121.)
`ExceptionalNearFields' returns the list of exceptional nearfields for a given
size <q>.
\beginexample
gap> ExceptionalNearFields( 25 );
[ ExplicitMultiplicationNearRing ( <pc group of size 25 with
2 generators> , multiplication ) ]
\endexample
\>AllExceptionalNearFields()
There are 7 finite nearfields which cannot be obtained from finite fields
via a Dickson process. They are of size $p^2$ for
$p = 5, 7, 11, 11, 23, 29, 59$. (There exist 2 exceptional nearfields of size
121.)
`AllExceptionalNearFields' without argument returns the list of exceptional
nearfields.
\beginexample
gap> AllExceptionalNearFields();
[ ExplicitMultiplicationNearRing ( <pc group of size 25 with
2 generators> , multiplication ),
ExplicitMultiplicationNearRing ( <pc group of size 49 with
2 generators> , multiplication ),
ExplicitMultiplicationNearRing ( <pc group of size 121 with
2 generators> , multiplication ),
ExplicitMultiplicationNearRing ( <pc group of size 121 with
2 generators> , multiplication ),
ExplicitMultiplicationNearRing ( <pc group of size 529 with
2 generators> , multiplication ),
ExplicitMultiplicationNearRing ( <pc group of size 841 with
2 generators> , multiplication ),
ExplicitMultiplicationNearRing ( <pc group of size 3481 with
2 generators> , multiplication ) ]
\endexample
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\Section{Planar nearrings}
\>PlanarNearRing( <G>, <phi>, <reps> )
A finite *Ferrero pair* is a pair of groups $(N,\Phi)$ where $\Phi$ is a
fixed-point-free automorphism group of $(N,+)$.
Starting with a Ferrero pair $(N,\Phi)$ we can construct a planar nearring
in the following way, \cite{Clay:Nearrings}:
Select representatives, say $e_{1},\ldots,e_{t}$, for some or all of the
non-trivial orbits of $N$ under $\Phi$.
Let $C = \Phi(e_1)\cup\ldots\cup\Phi(e_t)$.
For each $x\in N$ we define $a * x = 0$ for $a\in N\setminus C$, and
$a * x=\phi_{a}(x)$ for $a\in\Phi(e_{i})\subset C$ and $\phi_{a}(e_{i})=a$.
Then $(N,+,*)$ is a (left) planar nearring.
Every finite planar nearring can be constructed from some Ferrero pair
together with a set of orbit representatives in this way.
`PlanarNearRing' returns the planar nearring on the group <G> determined by
the fixed-point-free automorphism group <phi> and the list of chosen orbit
representatives <reps>.
\beginexample
gap> C7 := CyclicGroup( 7 );;
gap> i := GroupHomomorphismByFunction( C7, C7, x -> x^-1 );;
gap> phi := Group( i );;
gap> orbs := Orbits( phi, C7 );
[ [ <identity> of ... ], [ f1, f1^6 ], [ f1^2, f1^5 ],
[ f1^3, f1^4 ] ]
gap> # choose reps from the orbits
gap> reps := [orbs[2][1], orbs[3][2]];
[ f1, f1^5 ]
gap> n := PlanarNearRing( C7, phi, reps );
ExplicitMultiplicationNearRing ( <pc group of size 7 with
1 generator> , multiplication )
\endexample
\>OrbitRepresentativesForPlanarNearRing( <G>, <phi>, <i> )
%For a fixed Ferrero pair distinct choices of representatives may yield
%isomorphic nearrings.
Let $(N,\Phi)$ be a Ferrero pair, and let $E = \{ e_{1},\ldots,e_{s} \}$ and
$F = \{ f_{1},\ldots,f_{t} \}$ be two sets of non-zero orbit representatives.
The nearring obtained from $N,\Phi, E$ by the Ferrero construction
(see `PlanarNearRing') is isomorphic to the nearring obtained from $N,\Phi, F$
iff there exists an automorphism $\alpha$ of $(N,+)$ that normalizes $\Phi$
such that
$\{ \alpha(e_{1}),\ldots,\alpha(e_{s}) \} = \{ f_{1},\ldots,f_{t} \}$.
The function `OrbitRepresentativesForPlanarNearRing'
returns precisely one set of representatives of cardinality <i> for each
isomorphism class of planar nearrings which can be generated from the
Ferrero pair ( <G>, <phi> ).
\beginexample
gap> C7 := CyclicGroup( 7 );;
gap> i := GroupHomomorphismByFunction( C7, C7, x -> x^-1 );;
gap> phi := Group( i );;
gap> reps := OrbitRepresentativesForPlanarNearRing( C7, phi, 2 );
[ [ f1, f1^2 ], [ f1, f1^5 ] ]
gap> n1 := PlanarNearRing( C7, phi, reps[1] );;
gap> n2 := PlanarNearRing( C7, phi, reps[2] );;
gap> IsIsomorphicNearRing( n1, n2 );
false
\endexample
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\Section{Weakly divisible nearrings}
\>WdNearRing( <G>, <psi>, <phi>, <reps> )
Every finite (left) weakly divisible nearring $(N,+,\cdot)$ can be constructed
in the following way:
(1) Let $\psi$ be an endomorphism of the group $(N,+)$ such that Ker
$\psi =$ Image $\psi^{r-1}$ for some integer $r, r>0$. (Let $\psi^0 :=$ id.)
(2) Let $\Phi$ be an automorphism group of $(N,+)$ such that
$\psi\Phi\subseteq\Phi\psi$ and $\Phi$ acts fixed-point-free on
$N\setminus$ Image $\psi$.
(That is, for each
$\varphi\in\Phi$ there exists $\varphi'\in\Phi$ such that
$\psi\varphi = \varphi'\psi$ and for all $n\in N\setminus$ Image $\psi$ the
equality $n^\varphi = n$ implies $\varphi =$ id. Note that our functions
operate from the right just like GAP-mappings do.)
(3) Let $E\subseteq N$ be a complete set of orbit representatives for
$\Phi$ on $N\setminus$ Image $\psi$, such that for all $e_1, e_2\in E$, for all
$\varphi\in\Phi$ and for all $1 \leq i \leq r-1$ the equality
$e_1^{\varphi\psi^i} = e_2^{\psi^i}$ implies $\varphi\psi^i = \psi^i$.
Then for all $n\in N, n\neq 0$, there are $i\geq 0 ,\varphi\in\Phi$ and
$e\in E$ such that $n = e^{\varphi\psi^i}$; furthermore, for fixed $n$, the
endomorphism $\varphi\psi^i$ is independent of the choice of $e$ and
$\varphi$ in the representation of $n$.
For all $x\in N, e\in E,\varphi\in\Phi$ and $i\geq 0$ define $0\cdot x := 0$
and
$$ e^{\varphi\psi^i}\cdot x := x^{\varphi\psi^i} $$
Then $(N,+,\cdot)$ is a zerosymmetric (left) wd nearring.
`WdNearRing' returns the wd nearring on the group <G> as defined above
by the nilpotent endomorphism <psi>, the automorphism group <phi> and
a list of orbit representatives <reps> where the arguments fulfill the
conditions (1) to (3).
\beginexample
gap> C9 := CyclicGroup( 9 );;
gap> psi := GroupHomomorphismByFunction( C9, C9, x -> x^3 );;
gap> Image( psi );
Group([ f2, <identity> of ... ])
gap> Image( psi ) = Kernel( psi );
true
gap> a := GroupHomomorphismByFunction( C9, C9, x -> x^4 );;
gap> phi := Group( a );;
gap> Size( phi );
3
gap> orbs := Orbits( phi, C9 );
[ [ <identity> of ... ], [ f2 ], [ f2^2 ], [ f1, f1*f2, f1*f2^2 ],
[ f1^2, f1^2*f2^2, f1^2*f2 ] ]
gap> # choose reps from the orbits outside of Image( psi )
gap> reps := [orbs[4][1], orbs[5][1]];
[ f1, f1^2 ]
gap> n := WdNearRing( C9, psi, phi, reps );
ExplicitMultiplicationNearRing ( <pc group of size 9 with
2 generators> , multiplication )
\endexample
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